Black soldier fly (BSF) larvae, commonly marketed as Calciworms® (Timberline Fisheries Corp., Marion, IL, USA) or Phoenix Worms® (Insect Science Resource, LLC, Tifton, GA, USA), have become increasingly popular as a feeder insect for reptiles. Their popularity stems from the larvae's potentially calcium-rich nature, capable of surpassing a 2:1 calcium to phosphorus ratio without the need for dusting or gut loading. Despite their popularity, there has been limited research regarding their use as a food item for reptiles. They have, however, been studied extensively in food animal production as a less expensive source of animal protein and as part of an integrated waste management system. This review is meant to provide exotic animal veterinarians with evidenced-based research regarding the BSF's natural history, standard rearing practices, and the larvae's nutritive value in various animal systems, including captive reptiles. The authors hope this review will help veterinarians make better feeding recommendations for their reptile patients.Abstract
A 3-yr-old male inland bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) presented for progressive right forelimb lameness of 3-wk duration, anorexia, dyspnea with increased lung sounds, open–mouth-breathing, and compulsive neck thrashing. The owners opted for euthanasia. Necropsy revealed a yellow, opaque, soft tissue mass in the right axillary region dorsal to the brachial plexus. This round focal mass was well demarcated, measuring 1.3 cm in diameter, 0.4 cm in height, and incorporated a large unidentified blood vessel. Histopathology revealed an expansile, infiltrative, unencapsulated, poorly demarcated mass composed of neoplastic spindle cells forming streams and bundles separating adjacent muscle fascicles and infiltrating into surrounding vertebral bone and extending into a bone process. These spindle cells exhibited eosinophilic to amphophilic cytoplasm and a round to oval nucleus with finely stippled chromatin and a mitotic rate of 23 per 10 high-power fields. Immunohistochemistry (smooth muscle actin) identified the mass as a leiomyosarcoma. Despite local neoplastic infiltrates into the surrounding vertebral bone, there were no systemic metastases discovered grossly or on histopathology. The lungs exhibited interstitial mixed inflammation alongside mineralization and edema within the respiratory parenchyma consistent with interstitial pneumonia, which was believed to be the reason for the respiratory signs. This is the first report of an axillary leiomyosarcoma in a reptile and represents an unusual differential for unilateral lameness.Abstract
Two male inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) of 5 and 6 yr of age were presented for anorexia with and without lethargy, respectively. In both cases, a firm, spherical, and mobile mass, measuring 2 cm in diameter, was palpated in the cranio-medial coelom. Radiographs were unremarkable. Ultrasonographic evaluation was highly suggestive of cholecystolithiasis. Coeliotomy confirmed the presence of a markedly enlarged gallbladder containing a cholecystolith in both cases, and cholecystectomies were performed. Both dragons resumed eating after 1–7 days and were doing well 3–6 months postoperatively. The gallbladder wall was unremarkable on histology, and the choleliths were composed of protein and calcium carbonate crystals. Cholecystolithiasis in bearded dragons has been the subject of very few case reports, probably due to its low occurrence. The lack of available data on the diagnosis and management may have led to this condition being underdiagnosed in this species. Ultrasonography was essential to the clinical diagnosis of cholecystolithiasis in our two cases and should be recommended as part of the diagnostic approach of bearded dragons with cranio-medial coelomic masses.Abstract
Ball pythons (Python regius) are one of the most popular pet snakes, with >1 million animals currently kept in captivity and zoos. Designer ball pythons with unique “morphs” are highly desirable, leading to a niche market for privately owned captive-bred animals. A survey of ball python breeders across the United States was conducted to quantitatively assess ball python ownership, including husbandry and breeding practices. Survey distribution occurred through a breeder conference and over hobbyist and online marketplaces. Results indicate that, despite this growing market, most snake breeders make no substantial income from the snakes they breed and instead rear snakes as a hobby. Respondents manage a median of 45 animals (range: 7–700), buy and sell 4 and 20 animals per year, respectively, and generate a median of 0% in personal income. The majority use commercial rack systems (62%) with enclosure temperature gradients (83.7%) and humidity management (50%). Females and males are first bred at mean weights of 1,500 and 600 g, respectively, and they are paired for an average of 3.3 days (range: 2–7 days). Eggs are primarily managed in custom incubators (70%), most commonly on vermiculite (42.9%), and at a temperature of 31.7°C (89°F) and humidity of 95%. Assistance during hatching is provided in a majority (55.1%) of cases, and sex determination is primarily (74%) done by hemipenal eversion. Notably, 62% of responding breeders will feed live prey, 59.2% do not regularly screen their collections for parasites, and 71.4% have visited a veterinarian for a snake.Abstract
Fluid therapy selection is an important consideration for managing hemodynamically unstable patients. When working with reptiles, limited information is available for species-specific osmolality. A further understanding of reptile fluid balance and plasma osmolality is needed to select the most appropriate fluid for each situation. To date, osmolality has not been reported in a chameleon. Blood was collected from the ventral tail vein of 12 veiled chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus) and 12 panther chameleons (Furcifer pardalis) to measure plasma osmolality using an osmometer and to measure sodium, potassium, glucose, and uric acid concentrations using a standard chemistry analyzer. The chemistries were used to calculate osmolality using seven different formulas. The osmometer measured osmolalities in the veiled and panther chameleons were 330.5 mOsm/kg (range: 285–346.5 mOsm/kg) and 308.0 mOsm/kg (294–358.5 mOsm/kg), respectively. Bland–Altman plots were used to assess the level of agreement between these measured osmolalities and the seven calculated osmolalities. There was poor agreement between the measured and calculated osmolalities. Multiple linear regression was used to develop a species-specific equation for calculated osmolality; this was useful for veiled chameleons (osmolality = 2.098 [Na+]), but not panther chameleons. When comparing the measured osmolalities of these chameleons to other reptiles, there were significant differences (P < 0.05) between all groups, except veiled chameleons and green iguanas (Iguana iguana). The results of this study suggest that plasma osmolality should be considered species-specific in reptiles, and that an osmometer is the preferred method for measuring osmolality in veiled and panther chameleons.Abstract
Herpesviruses are significant pathogens of captive-reared and free-ranging chelonians worldwide. Lesions associated with chelonian herpesvirus infection are species dependent and include stomatitis in tortoises, hepatic necrosis in pond turtles, and fibropapillomas in sea turtles, among other conditions. Herpesviruses also have been detected in several free-ranging freshwater turtle species with no clinical signs of illness at a prevalence from 2 to 56%. The alligator snapping turtle (Macrochelys temminckii) is a freshwater turtle species endemic to the United States that has experienced declines throughout its range. Reintroduction of this species is currently underway in several states. As part of a health surveillance program, in concert with reintroduction efforts, we investigated the presence of herpesvirus in captive and free-ranging alligator snapping turtles. Using conventional consensus polymerase chain reaction, we tested combined oral/cloacal swab DNA samples (n = 197) from head-started alligator snapping turtles prerelease and postrelease in southern Illinois (n = 153), prerelease samples from adult turtles confiscated from Florida (n = 18), and prerelease samples from captive-reared individuals from northern Louisiana (n = 26). Herpesvirus DNA was not detected in any sample. Possible explanations for these results include lack of exposure, latency in tissues not sampled, and viral quantities below the level of detection of the assay. Continued surveillance for this and other pathogens is helpful in characterizing potential disease risks from captive-reared reintroduction programs and will enhance future conservation efforts of this species.Abstract
Anecdotal reports suggest that bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) may be useful for treating chelonian shell defects, but controlled studies are lacking. Under general anesthesia, 2-cm-diameter, full-thickness carapace defects were created bilaterally in the second costal scute of 12 red-eared slider turtles (Trachemys scripta elegans). Defects were managed for 10 days by using negative pressure wound therapy, followed by bandages. Three weeks postoperatively, one defect on each turtle was injected with 0.1 mg of recombinant human BMP-2 carried in bovine type 1 collagen, whereas the contralateral defect was injected with only collagen. Four turtles were euthanized at each of three time points (2, 4, and 12 wk posttreatment). Defects were evaluated by gross appearance, computed tomography, and histology. No difference was noted between the treated and untreated defects. Nonetheless, histologic assessment provided novel characterization of the progression of chelonian shell healing under controlled conditions. Examination indicated that margins of exposed carapace bone underwent osteonecrosis. Re-epithelialization and osteoclastic activity undermined necrotic bone, which was eventually sloughed. Inflammation of the deep wound bed, including the pericoelomic membrane, resolved with completion of re-epithelialization and was associated with the transition of granulation tissue into mature fibrous connective tissue. Osteoid and woven bone formed along remodeled margins and began to bridge the wound along its deep surface within this fibrous connective tissue. Although this study did not demonstrate BMP efficacy, the surgical model described here may be useful for future studies of chelonian shell repair and healing, including studies that evaluate alternative formulations of BMP.Abstract
Frogs are popular exotic pets and research subjects. Manual restraint is routinely used for basic procedures in frogs, including examination and sample collection, but there is little information on its physiologic effects in amphibians. Previous literature suggested that amphibians lack emotional responses and, therefore, consciousness, based upon an inability to elicit stress tachycardia with gentle handling. To determine if manual restraint results in a stress tachycardia in frogs, 10 poison dart frogs (Dendrobates tinctorius) and 8 leopard frogs (Lithobates pipiens) were manually restrained and heart rate (HR) recorded at both the pectoral girdle and pelvic patch using a Doppler flow probe. Frogs were randomly placed in one of two (opaque versus translucent) types of plastic containers for 22 min and HR measured every 2 min through the bottom of the container using the frogs' pelvic patch area. Frogs were then removed from the container, manually restrained again, and HR recorded. Heart rate decreased significantly after the frogs were placed in the containers following manual restraint, and increased significantly for the second restraint period. There were no significant differences in measured HR between anatomic sites (pelvic vs. pectoral) or container types. Contrary to previous descriptions, these results demonstrated that, similar to other mammal and reptile species, frogs demonstrated stress tachycardia during manual restraint, and, therefore, clinicians and researchers should be mindful of induced stress when restraining amphibians.Abstract
This study screened reptiles presented to specialized veterinary practices in Poland for DNA and RNA of six pathogens and evaluated connections between infections and animal husbandry. Four clinics with veterinarians specializing in exotic animal medicine collected swabs from the soft palate, cloaca, and any lesions from reptiles during routine visits. All samples were screened for the presence of herpesvirus, adenovirus, ranavirus, and mycoplasma DNA. Snake samples were also screened for reptarenavirus and nidovirus RNA. A short questionnaire was filled out by the owner(s) that included questions about the animal and its husbandry. Samples were collected from 254 animals; 107 (42.1%) tested positive for at least one pathogen. The most common agents detected were mycoplasmas (29.1% positive) and adenoviruses (10.6% positive); no rana- or reptarenaviruses were detected. Herpes and nidoviruses were each found in a few cases (2 and 13, respectively). Mycoplasmas were most often detected in Russian tortoises (Testudo horsfieldii; 88.9% positive) and green tree pythons (Morelia viridis; 76.9% positive). Adenoviruses were detected primarily in bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps; 35.2% positive). Nidoviruses were found only in pythons in the genera Python and Morelia. Herpesviruses were detected in green iguanas (Iguana iguana). There was no correlation between husbandry and mycoplasma or virus detection. Although the detection of many of these pathogens corresponds to findings in other countries, several (high rates of mycoplasma-positive snakes and herpesvirus-positive iguanas) were surprising and may reflect specific disease dynamics within Poland.Abstract
A prospective study was performed in 12 green iguanas (Iguana iguana) to compare the radiographic appearance of coelomic viscera. Five radiographic projections (views) of the coelom were obtained: dorsoventral, right lateral vertical beam, left lateral vertical beam, right lateral horizontal beam, and left lateral horizontal beam. One week later, the same radiographic projections were obtained after oral administration of barium. In 4 of the 12 green iguanas, an additional vertical beam ventrodorsal view was obtained. In comparing lateral projections, lung, liver, and gonads were best imaged in horizontal beam lateral projections, before distention of the stomach with barium, whereas the gastrointestinal tract including the colon was best visualized in vertical beam lateral projections. The shape and size of the cardiac silhouette was considered equivalent between analogous lateral projections in most green iguanas (10 [83%] of 12). In comparing ventrodorsal and dorsoventral projections, the ventrodorsal projections improved visibility of the cardiac silhouette and lung in 4 (100%) of 4 green iguanas, while reducing cardiac length. Dorsoventral projections were preferred for the evaluation of the gastrointestinal tract. This study demonstrates that radiographic beam orientation and patient position result in obvious radiographic differences of the iguanid coelom and that projections are not interchangeable.Abstract
Vitamin D3 is an important endocrine hormone that regulates calcium and phosphorus balance. Many carnivorous reptiles acquire vitamin D through dietary intake, although a number of reptiles rely on ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation exposure to synthesize Vitamin D3. Previous studies have investigated whether or not nocturnal species, such as the leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularis), use UVB radiation to synthesize Vitamin D. This prospective study evaluated eighteen 180-day old hatchling leopard geckos, divided into two groups. The first group was provided UVB lighting for two hours daily, while the second group received no UVB exposure.
The Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery (JHMS) is designed to be a source of information for veterinarians and others involved in the health of reptiles and amphibians. JHMS is interested in all aspects of care for these species, including natural history and maintenance in captivity as well as particular medical and surgical problems. Manuscripts are expected to be original works that have not been previously published (with the exception of abstracts of 250 words or less). All authors are welcome to submit manuscripts for consideration. Student authors (including undergraduate, veterinary, graduate, residents, interns, etc.) enrolled in a full-time
