Editorial Type:
Article Category: Review Article
 | 
Online Publication Date: 01 Jan 2017

Ophidian Cardiology—A Review

DVM, DABVP (Canine/Feline), CertAqV
Page Range: 62 – 77
DOI: 10.5818/1529-9651-27.1-2.62
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Abstract

The Class Reptilia is divided into four Orders: Chelonia, Crocodylia, Rhynchocephalia, and Squamata. The most diverse of these orders is the Squamata, which is further subdivided into Sauria (lizards), Amphisbaenia (amphisbaenians), and Ophidia (snakes). Snakes are a unique and very diverse group of reptiles that have become popular in zoological collections and in the pet trade. This popularity necessitates the veterinarian who treats reptiles to be familiar with snakes and their related medical conditions. Knowledge of the unique anatomy and physiology of these species is paramount for successful management of the ophidian patient. As with most reptilian patients, husbandry-related problems and infectious conditions are common. But as these conditions become less prevalent through proper husbandry and biosecurity, metabolic and degenerative disorders are beginning to be described more in snakes, including cardiovascular disorders. As reptilian medicine evolves, the responsible clinician will need to stay abreast of the growing knowledge of these disorders. This article is to serve as a literature review of cardiology as it applies to snakes.

Keywords: snake; cardiology; heart; ophidian; cardiovascular; Squamata
Copyright: © 2017 Association of Reptilian and Amphibian Veterinarians 2017
Figure 1.
Figure 1.

Ventral view of the heart of an eastern green mamba, Dendroaspis angusticeps. The right atrium is larger than the left atrium, causing the atrioventricular sulcus to be oblique. Note the spiraling of the pulmonary artery and aortae between the atria. The pericardium has been removed. Right atrium (RA), left atrium (LA), ventricle (V), pulmonary artery (PA), right aorta (RAo), left aorta (LAo), coronary artery (c). Photo credit: Jayne Hardwick.

Figure 2.
Figure 2.

Right lateral view of the heart of a terciopelo viper, Bothrops asper. The sinus venosus (SV) is located on the dorsal aspect of the right atrium (RA). The pericardium has been removed. Ventricle (V), left atrium (LA), caudal vena cava (CdVC). Photo credit: Jayne Hardwick.

Figure 3.
Figure 3.

Intraluminal view of the right atrium in a Costa Rican jumping pitviper, Atropoides picadoi. Note the trabecular network. Image captured during necropsy using a 2.7-mm 0° rigid endoscope with diagnostic cannula (MDS, Inc., Valrico, FL) and saline infusion.

Figure 4.
Figure 4.

Schematic drawing of the ball python, Python regius, heart demonstrating ventricular blood flow. A. Early diastole. Deoxygenated blood flows from the right atrium into the cavum venosum. Oxygenated blood flows from the left atrium into the cavum arteriosum. The septal leaflets of the AV valves occlude the intraventricular canal, preventing the mixture of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. B. Late diastole. The AV valves close and deoxygenated blood moves from the cavum venosum into the cavum pulmonale. C. Ventricular systole. Deoxygenated blood flows from the cavum pulmonale out through the pulmonary artery. Oxygenated blood flows from the cavum arteriosum through the cavum venosum and out through both left and right aortae. Note the separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood by the muscular ridge contacting the bulbuslamelle. Oxygenated blood (red arrows), deoxygenated blood (blue arrows), right atrium (RA), left atrium (LA), cavum venosum (CV), cavum arteriosum (CA), cavum pulmonale (CP), pulmonary artery (PA), right aorta (RAo), left aorta (LAo). Adapted from Starck et al., 2009.

Figure 5.
Figure 5.

The relationships between mean arterial pressures, measured at the body center, and head-up tilt angle determined in species of snakes from different gravitational environments. Graph from Seymour and Lillywhite, 1976.

Figure 6.
Figure 6.

Cardiomegaly in a corn snake, Pantherophis guttatus. Snake is positioned in dorsal recumbency. Photo credit: Jayne Hardwick.

Figure 7.
Figure 7.

Coelomic transudate in a Mexican cantil, Agkistrodon bilineatus, diagnosed with congestive heart failure secondary to hypertriglyceridemia and xanthogranulomatous thrombi at the cardiac outflow tract. Photo credit: Jayne Hardwick.

Figure 8.
Figure 8.

Blood pressure cuff placement on the tail of a boa constrictor, Boa constrictor. The cuff is placed just caudal to the cloaca. Photo credit: Jayne Hardwick.

Figure 9.
Figure 9.

Electrocardiogram lead placement on a boa constrictor, Boa constrictor. Photo credit: Jayne Hardwick

Figure 10.
Figure 10.

Lead II ECG in a terciopelo viper, Bothrops asper. Note the inverted T wave. Paper speed 50 mm/sec.

Figure 11.
Figure 11.

Horizontal beam lateral projection radiograph of a juvenile black-tailed cribo, Drymarchon melanurus, with cardiomegaly. The snake is restrained in an acrylic tube to assist in positioning.

Figure 12.
Figure 12.

Ultrasound probe positioning on a Thai red mountain ratsnake, Oreocryptophis porphyraceus, restrained in dorsal recumbency. Note the copious amount of acoustic coupling gel. Photo credit: Jayne Hardwick

Figure 13.
Figure 13.

Pulsed wave and color flow Doppler echocardiography in the same snake seen in Figure 11. Note the regurgitant jet lesion seen at the level of the right atrioventricular valve.

Figure 14.
Figure 14.

Uric acid tophi on jugular veins in a Costa Rican jumping pitviper, Atropoides picadoi. Photo credit: Jayne Hardwick.

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